Gender, A Theoretical Analysis: Introduction

By Abhinita Mohanty

Before going into gender stratification in particular I would like to mention briefly about stratification in general and then go on to introduce the former. The term stratification is considered to be synonymous to ‘inequality’. It refers to a system of ranking or hierarchical division of society. Any system of hierarchy in a particular society owes its origin to many things ranging from heredity (as in case of caste in India), economic background (class) to socially created norms (relating to gender and power, mainly). Stratification is universal since it is found in every society from primitive to the modern, and is not confined only to societies with private property but yes, the criterion of this stratification changes with the emergence of private property. Stratification thus starts as a process of physical and biological and natural differences among human beings and culminates as gender, racial, caste, ethnic and class divisions in society. The type of stratification that I will explicate here revolves around ‘gender.

The term ‘gender’ is purely a social construction that members of society attach to females and males. The term ‘sex’ refers to the biological differences between man and woman. But gender is always created and imposed upon by social actors through different means of socialisation and internalization of social norms. Biologically the differences between men and women are very little as compared to the traits and characters that are culturally defined and determined. A person is only born biologically different species but is created as a boy or a girl by the society. Family, peer group, schools, mass media, etc are the agencies, which contribute towards gender socialisation and stereotypes. It is reinforced through praise for compliance and mockery for non-compliance. Gender stratification refers to the unequal distribution of wealth, power, prestige, unequal access to justice, oppurtunity and nutrition between men and women; in which men are the ones who dominate. The dual process of domination and subordination is an important feature of any system of stratification, including gender stratification. Gender also involves hierarchy. Males are considered to be the chief bread earners; they are seen as public, aggressive, masculine, dominating, and powerful. The girls are taught to be private, good homemakers, submissive, delicate and feminine.

It is from these attached social connotations that become the initial point of gender stratification and inequality. The stratification as mostly imagined is not confined to the culturally backward societies even the so-called highly developed societies do display some form of gender hierarchy or stratification. Some of the features like names and dress are the very explicit signs of gender differentiation in society. Gender stratification varies from culture to culture. The gender stratification is also termed as ‘sexist’ or ‘sexism’, which refers to subordination of one sex with assumed superiority of the other. Sexism is an extension of patriarchy. In a patriarchal society men dominate over women in terms of economy, power and decision making in a family.

To quote Henslin (2008:262) “patriarchy is tied to the “social consequences of reproduction.”  He notes that “historically, life was short which required the production of many babies.  This fact had serious consequences for women because only women could become pregnant, carry a child, give birth and nurse children”. Henslin (2008:262) suggests that “because women had child care duties, women “assumed tasks associated with home and child care”[i]. This also refers to the ways we initially stereotype the ways we think others relate to the world.  The gender stratification that has been always tilted towards benefits of men ultimately led to the concept of ‘feminism’ as a counter movement against such an unfair division in the society.

Gender Polarization refers to the tendency to construct more homogenized, and also certain exclusive ideal types of male or female characteristics rather than embracing the naturally occurring diversity within the gender spectrum. Androcentrism refers to the idea that our society is male-centered, that is, hegemonic notions of masculinity are what most individuals must live up to in order to access positions of high status and prestige. These are the terms that sum up the gender stratification in society. Right since the childhood, a child’s conscience is manipulated in a way that confirms to the social norms of a society. The unfortunate part of gender socialisation is the fact that it leads huge loss of economic productivity in society. The talent of the women even today is not being tapped to its fullest potential. In society it leads to unfair divisions and ideological cleavages between sexes.

The above-mentioned concepts are important in order to know the nuances and complications involve in stratification. Since my analysis will be based on gender stratification based on theories I would like to point out some of the gender theories and also the kind of gender differences faced by women in the contemporary world. Stratification on the basis of sex/gender channel males and females into very different and often unequal life situations. To quote the principle s of gender stratification from writing in Wikipedia, “however, resistance to this system is often mitigated by the process of enculturation, whereby individuals encountering hegemonic gendered discourses and institutions gradually internalize socially acceptable standards of behavior and are rewarded for constructing identities consistent with them” [ii].  To quote Charles Darwin (Fee, 1979: 418) who concluded “women’s brains were analogous to those of animals, which had overdeveloped sense organs to the detriment of the brain”. In earlier societies voting rights were not given to women as it was believed that women are less rational than men in choosing a leader and, if women spent more time in intellectual orientations it will hamper their reproductive faculties. Although there are many forms of stratification linked to gender in various ways I have chosen to illustrate many gender theories but has emphasized on gender stratification in two areas occupation and family.

SOME GENERAL THEORIES OF GENDER[iii]

Gender stratification is conceptualized in some of the theories on gender. Some of these theories not only show the gender differences but also show why gender hierarchy happens in society. Some of the popular gender theories of stratification are discussed below:

SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY: Small children learn gender roles and differences through various agencies. They emulate gender behavior from society and are rewarded, coerced or punished accordingly.

 SELF IDENTIFICATION THEORY: Children start identifying themselves with their respective gender usually at the age of three. Through various cultural materials gender internalization is done.

SYMBOLIC INTERACTION THEORY:  Symbolic interactionism refers to the importance that symbols have in society. Human beings mainly interact with and according to the value that society attaches to certain symbols. These symbols structure the social conditions. In case of gender too the social interactionism interacts with the minds of the individuals and negotiates gender roles with them.

GENDER SCHEMA THEORY: This framework is used to interpret new information and think about gender.

 Gender Theories

The structural-functionalist Theory: The structural functionalist view the society as an integrated whole. In a society roles and rules are distinctly defined and they give rise to a consensus in the society. These norms and values are adhered to by most members of the society and make it a stable institution. The functionalists are of the opinion that conflicts occur rarely in a society and deviance tendencies are minimized by social sanctions. According to this theory, the gender roles in every society are well defined and so is the division of labor. There is gender stratification and inequality in society, which remains unchallenged due to the fact that it is sanctioned by the social laws. The functionalists believe that gender and any other form of stratification are helps a society to discharge its functions smoothly and thus fulfilling the social needs of its members. The functionalists however were did not denied that changes take place in all societies and it is inevitable. Socially institutions created institutions (be it caste or gender) of stratification though are open to change and reforms; yet it evolves very slowly so that it do not hamper the consensus of the larger social groups.

Conflict Theory: Karl Marx was the father of conflict theory. According to the proponents of this school of thought, all societies are conflict ridden and consensus seldom occurs. Societies are conflict ridden due to unjustified social stratification between different classes and gender. The role distribution, resources and ownership are unequally accessible to different groups in the society. In case of gender, the women are mostly excluded from production process and property. Among women there emerges a desire to challenge such inequalities. This can lead to frustrations and result in movements for change. The development of feminism movements throughout the world asserts this theory. Feminist movements emerged as a challenge to the conventional patriarchal norms of society. The pace of such revolutions and movements of feminism are determined by the amount of consciousness within women about their own plight.

Symbolic Interactionism Theory: In society everything has a meaning attached to it. Human beings act towards things in accordance to the meaning the thing conveys to them. These meanings are determined and interpreted by social interaction and internalization of social norms. People consciously interact with symbols and are self-reflexive in the way they act according to different situations. Social realities need to be understood from the point of view of the actor. In case of gender studies such symbols which give social meanings through interaction plays an important role. Gender is assigned in society through such symbols. Certain symbols of feminist and masculinity are socially imposed and are interpreted to us through the process of social interaction. The notion of patriarchy negotiates its way through these symbols. In a society gender stratification is practiced since it is assumed by people through symbolic interaction that females lack intellectual faculties and skillful capabilities and are more fits more to the image of a ‘private home maker’ and ‘ideal mother’.

Feminist Essentialism:  This theory located aspects that make women essentially different from man, and thus rejecting the liberal feminist’s assertion than both the sexes have got the same resource.  To quote Beatrice Kachuck “essentialists advocates, counter pose a Universal woman to the enlightenment’s universal man”.  Women in their moral, intellectual and rational capabilities are different from men but are in no way deficient than them. This school celebrates the unique abilities of women. It seeks also to escape from the male defined feminism (which views women in conventional ways) and calls for women to realize their own creative potentials. According to Irigary, to free themselves from the male visions of feminism, men should discover their own erotic and sexual potential through homosexual relationships. They should also flaunt the feminity that men define for them. Women need to stay in the patriarchal process, yet they should withdraw from it and define their world for themselves. It rejects the epistemology that ‘men women are equal’ and at the same time seeks to make women different and distinguished. Female should carry the instrument of her own self, autonomous from social stereotypes.

 GENDER AND OCCUPATION THEORIES[iv]

 Occupation of any type should be based on qualifications, skills and competency. Right from the beginning the occupational sector is gendered in the favor of men but it is largely perceived that in the contemporary world such gender notions have melted down owing to better gender awareness and rise of education. But such stereotype still exists in more subtle forms in different sectors. Some of the theories responsible of gender differentiation in the job sectors and other economic gainful activities are as follows:

GLASS CEILING: Even in the top corporate cultures, women are treated partially in terms giving promotions and selection to various positions. Internalisation of gender negative norms creates barriers for women from reaching top of the corporate ladder and public responsibility.

STICKY FLOOR: The sticky floor concept refers to norms, which prefer to keep them comparatively in the lower rung of the occupational hierarchy in low paying jobs for majority of women in the world.

GLASS ESCALATOR: In certain job sectors men are escalated to the top positions overcrossing the women; especially in female dominated job sectors.

MATERNAL WALL: This concept connotes the values of a ‘good mother’ who commits herself to child bearing and upbringing and as such generally cannot give the time and strength require for skillful jobs. They as such lack commitment and competency in the public sphere.

OCCUPATIONAL STRATIFICATION

The stratification of gender is not confined to the occupational structure but is even starker in the field of entrepreneurship. Women entrepreneurs are very less as compared to women. Women face a lot of hassles both social and institutional in setting up their own business enterprises.  She gets less support and encouragement to pursue an autonomous career where she is the boss herself. Thus, women remain under represented in organized sectors. In the unorganized sectors women are present in a large numbers than the former sector. Unorganized sectors mainly include domestic workers, construction workers, vendors, manual laborers, etc. In these sectors women are even more exploited as compared to the organized sectors. In such sectors women are paid lower than the men workers for equal work. In case of construction workers her daily wages are irregularly paid and cleverly manipulated by the contractors. The men who supervise the workers extract most labour from the women worker. The labour hours are extended beyond the stipulated labour time; many times without payment.

Adrocentricism and power operates in workplace in different ways in job sectors. The more women in a specific job, the more its prestige declines (nurse, receptionist, secretary, primary school teacher, etc). In order to be successful in profession, the behaviour demands to be traditionally ‘unfeminine’. Traditionally ‘feminine traits’ has to be sacrificed to be professionally successful and hence she runs the risk of becoming stigmatized by being labeled as ‘manly’. When a woman wants to be successful in her career she needs the support from her spouse; and owing to our cultural education most men are will not take on the household works of their wives, not even partially. Women not only enter the job market late but also have to leave it occasionally in order to prioritize their motherhood. To quote Appelbaum & Chambliss, (1997:228) “second shift, is the unpaid work that women typically do after they come home from their paid employment”.  The amount of hard work that a homemaker puts in is never accounted by the society; since it is does not get economic returns. But the fact that the ‘invisible labour’ labour of a homemaker is contribute towards labour productivity and worker’s physical well being is largely ignored.

INEQUALITY IN THE ORGANISATION OF THE WORK ITSELF

There are certain jobs, which are organized in such a way that it prevents social mobility or minimizes it. This happens in many ways. To quote Russ Long, “Blocked opportunities: Refer to structural barriers that minorities encounter that prevent their advancement in an organization.  People who have their opportunities blocked (despite their demographic characteristics) limit their aspirations. Instead of defining themselves through the work they perform, they seek satisfaction in activities outside work, dream of escape, and create sociable peer groups in which inter personal relationships become more important than the specific job they are hired to perform. The key point is that the characteristics of work (that block opportunity) determine the characteristics of the employee”.

Old-boy networks: “Refer to the informal social relationships that occur within any large organization. They may not have discriminatory intentions, but their actions amount to discrimination in that minorities are ultimately excluded from participation in the organization.  While the term “old-boy” implies a male dominated organization, the gender reference might be misplaced. So in this way the minority (here women) remains in lower positions”.

GENDER STRATIFICATION WITHIN FAMILY

Gender stratification first starts from the family and then is extended in the public sphere. The most forceful gender stereotyping and stratification occurs within the four wall of the family. The unhappiness and displeasure in many people on hearing the birth of a girl in India determines the kind of gender stratification.

DIVISION OF LABOUR

In the household, the girls are taught cooking and other ‘homely’ skills. Becoming a good homemaker is given more emphasis than making her a good, skillful and professional worker. Even when the girl is most educated, she is equipped with skills to make herself a devoted wife.

NUTRITION AND EDUCATION

In terms of nutrition, especially, in poor families boys are given preference over girls; although owing to their biological processes girls need regular balanced diet than the boys. Nutrition deficient mothers many times give birth to malnutrition girl child and continue the cycle. In education, boys are preferred to have technical education and girls are enrolled in non-technical courses. This shows that the society prefer men to have better professional skills.

PROPERTY RIGHTS

In most cultures, it is the male child who inherits property. The girl is given a certain amount in dowry over which she has no control once she gets married. Although Indian law gives women right to property, it is seldom practiced. Women too do not demand their share since they feel that the brother has the rightful claim over it and she also do not desire to involve herself in a dispute with her own family members. She is deprived off all economic resources and owns actually nothing. In case of cruelty, which many women suffer after marriage, she rarely raises her voice against it as she has no financial resources. Thus, they suffer silently.